Utilitarian Theory of Punishment in the Criminal Justice...

There is an ongoing problem in our society regarding punishment and responsibility. We, as a society, tend to look away when it comes to how criminals are being punished and maybe we should be paying more attention. Violence seems to be an integral part of our society, some raise their children with violence, we watch it on television, read it in newspapers and books and now we are even playing violent video games. When it comes to the judicial system the majority of citizens do not even know how individuals are being punished or if the punishment is too harsh, not severe enough or if the individual even needs punishment because what they may need is psychiatric help. Behavioral scientist, Karl Menninger, believes that our prisons are†¦show more content†¦The utilitarian theory of punishment is another approach to the criminal justice system. Richard B. Brandt believes that this type of punishment is frequently found in Great Britain and the United States. He believes that u tilitarian’s differ in their thoughts as to what is the â€Å"ideal† system would be but the punishment extended should be fair and that the threat of punishment may be more important than the punishment itself. Brandt discusses the difference in the prosecution and defense used to obtain maximum utility and how the punishment should be implemented and how to mitigate the punishment. Brandt also discusses how utilitarian’s believe that reform needs to take place in the criminal justice system. What is being proposed begins with reforming the juvenile court system with more psychiatric treatment and programs to assist with crime prevention as well as asking for more social awareness to help these programs. This reform would then be extended to the adult population. After a guilty verdict is rendered, the experts would complete an evaluation and decisions would be made regarding treatment for each individual and a timeline created to establish when such individual could be reintegrated back into society. This type of sentence may not follow utilitarian views but there views regardingShow MoreRelatedThe Retributive And Utilitarian Theory Of Punishment1478 Words   |  6 Pages Punishment is any kind of negative penalty inflicted on the wrong doer to prevent him from doing wrong in the future. Though there is no specific definition for punishment, it implies all those acts that are required to teach the wrong doer a lesson. Taking a negative step towards the offender. Since the evolution of time, there have been many sociologists who have given their theories on punishment and how the offender should be punished. The theories vary in terms of approach takenRead MoreRetributive, Utilitarian and Rehabilitative Justice Compared1680 Words   |  7 PagesRetributive, Utilitarian and Rehabilitative Justice Compared The three justice theories or views, which include utilitarianism, rehabilitative or a retributive style of justice, are multifaceted. It is not easy to sum the aspects of each without lengthy discussion. Therefore, I will try to maximize my efforts and offer concise answers. It is fair to note that my belief system correlates strongly with retributive style justice theory. Nevertheless, I will compare all three theories accordingly. Read MoreThe Theory Of The Criminal Justice System931 Words   |  4 Pages The notion that punishment should be equal to the crime is a major philosophy in the US criminal justice system. However, finding a great balance between justice and punishment is often a blurred line. Over the past 40 years, the population of state and federal prisons have risen drastically. Polices such as the war on drugs and get tough on crime have caused judges to give out more incarceration years than ever before. With such are large prison population, the resources ne eded to operate isRead MoreJustification And Justification Of The Penal System1171 Words   |  5 PagesPunishment in general can obviously be justified (in the traditional sense of the term) on utilitarian grounds. Nevertheless, usually its justification is not asked for. Because justification of punishment, in general is unnecessary. It is the justification of particular infliction of pain (or punishment) that can be enquired of. As a man can legitimately ask for justification of a particular law of a state. However, nobody enquires of the justification of legal system or of law in general. It isRead MoreThe Utilitarian Theory Of Punishment1494 Words   |  6 Pagesdefend both the proponents and principles of the utilitarian theory of punishment, namely addressing the utilitarian approach juxtaposed with the retributive. Before beginning to make claims in any direction, a brief and to-date synopsis of the utilitarian fundamentals regarding punishment will be necessary. From ther e, I will present the utilitarian theories of punishment as not only the most useful for a society, but also the best representation of criminal law being carried out justly. Following thisRead MoreIs Restorative Justice Gaing Support in South Africa?1503 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Punishment, central to any legal proceeding where the accused is found guilty, directly falls under criminal law and is determined by punishment theories. Whether South Africa is moving towards restorative justice approaches influences many aspects: it allows the protection of society, results in more of a crime-free life for the offender and it gives offenders the chance to learn from their experience, and gain insight into their behaviour and allows victims to handle their injusticeRead MoreThe Classical Theory Of Criminal Activity856 Words   |  4 Pagesbecause it is believed that criminal activity is a rational choice, chosen because they perceive it to be in their best interest. â€Å"Criminals make a rational choice and choose to do criminal acts due to maximum pleasure and minimum pain† (Classical School of Criminology, 2012) Cesare Beccaria contributed to the classical theory greatly, and introduced several attributions to the justice system which advanced it immensely. â€Å"Views were consistent with Beccaria’s utilitarian beliefs that sought to maximizeRead MoreKant and Mills on Capital Punishment Essay1609 Words   |  7 PagesKant and Mills on Capital Punishment Capital punishment has raised debate in America since 1608. Both the â€Å"pro-â€Å" and â€Å"anti-â€Å" sides of the issue have strong arguments. Some believe killing is simply wrong, and violates universal human rights, others seek the only justice they deem appropriate, equal justice. I will examine the philosophies of Immanuel Kant, and John Stuart Mill, with regards to their stance on the death penalty. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806- 8 May 1873) was born in London, EnglandRead MoreAmerica s Scandalous Incarceration Rate921 Words   |  4 Pagesthe numbers today are much higher than they were 30, 40 years ago despite the fact that crime is at historic lows. So what are we to make of the leap in time typically served for crimes in America’s society? Either the justice system was too lenient in the past, or the justice system is too strict now. Have we just now realized the real gravity of murder, or are we now overreacting? Those who have served a proportional sentence, and have proven themselves worthy, deserve to be restored to public lifeRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty1714 Words   |  7 PagesCapital punishment, or the death penalty is the legally authorized death of an individual as punishment for a heinous crime, typically one that involves murder. The legality of it varies by state and it continues to be a contentious topic of discussion in the United States. Furthermore, in recent decades, public opinion has been shifting from a supportive stance to an unsupportive stance on the use of the death penalty. It is now perceived by most people to be an unethical, immoral, and expensive

Animal Rights Issue Research question Free Essays

Topic: Animal Rights Issue Research question: Has animal rights issue gone too far? Working thesis statement: Do animal rights organization take it too far, when it actively encourages a vegetarian diet as a way of life? Yes it’s taking it too far by ignoring the value of nutrients that meat can offer our bodies. Research plan: I plan to conduct my research on the issue if animal rights organizations have gone too far in promoting a vegetarian diet. But also on those who do not encourage this and the importance that meat has. We will write a custom essay sample on Animal Rights Issue Research question or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some of the sites I will be using are http://www. prairie. org/, http://digitalcommons. csbsju. edu, and other resources. Timetable for Research Project Assignments| Assignment related to the research paper| Description of and points for the assignment:| Due date as indicated in course syllabus:| Exact Date and time in MST:| Research Proposal and Outline| Four part proposal and six part outline (60 pts. ). | Week 4 in Dropbox| 8/9/2012 at 3:00pm| Annotated Bibliography| List and summary of at least five sources (100 pts). Week 5 in Dropbox| 8/16/2012 at 3:00pm| First Draft of Research Paper| Draft of first three sections of final paper, including introduction, thesis statement, and problem section (60 pts). | Week 6 in Dropbox| 8/22/2012 at 3:00pm| Second Draft of Research Paper| Draft of final three sections of final paper, including solution and call to action sections | Week Discussion topic 2 | 8/27/2012 at 5:00pm| Research Paper Presentation| The format presentation of the entir e paper (50 pts). Week 7 in Dropbox| 8/29/2012 at 6:00pm| Final Research Paper| Entire paper addressing feedback on first two drafts. It must have all six sections and include a References page (150 pts). | Week 8 in Dropbox| 9/4/2012 at 3:00pm| Research Outline I. I plan to conduct my research on and if animal rights organizations have gone too far in promoting a vegetarian diet? And those who do not encourage this and the importance that meat has. Is animal rights organization taking it too far, when it actively encourages a vegetarian diet as a way of life? Of course it’s taking it too far by ignoring the value of nutrients that meat can offer our bodies. II. Of course it’s taking it too far by promoting a diet that should have nothing to do with animal abuse. III. Secondly, they ignore the value of nutrients that meat can offer our bodies that can lead to healthier muscle growth. IV. A solution to this would be to find a different method that is least painful for the animals we kill to eat. V. A second solution would be to let others eat what they want, and focus more on stricter laws. To actually putting a stop those who are abusing these animals. VI. I agree that everything on earth is for the utility of humanity. But that doesn’t give any one the right to abuse, or be cruel towards an animal. We should focus more on stricter policies, and stopping does who make these animals suffer pain. Just because an animal is killed to provide meat, is no reason to turn vegetarian. Humans have a right to eat meat. The abuse has to stop, so that we are provided with a healthier meat. How to cite Animal Rights Issue Research question, Essays

The Rise of Big Business free essay sample

Today, the Big Business is one of the main features of the modern economic environment. Big Business refers mainly to corporations, huge economic entities operating for profit and distributing the ownership by the means of stocks. The Big Business started to grow in America after the Civil War, in the 1860s and already reached its peak of strengths by the roaring 1920s. Although Big Business faces much social and governmental control nowadays, its power is still enormous. Large business corporations provide most of economic output, employment places, financial investments, and production output. Politics is also very much influenced by the large corporations and is often forced into pursuing businesses strategic interests. Even average citizens get much of Big Business influence through employment, and corporations PR campaigns, marketing strategies, and other public policies. David Korten, in his book When Corporations Rule The World, points out that often corporations have more power than a state. Korten argues that, Corporations have emerged as the dominant governance institutions on the planet, with the largest among them reaching into virtually every country of the world and exceeding ost governments in size and power. Increasingly, it is the corporate interest more than the human interest that defines the policy agendas of states and international bodies . The impact of the corporations on the society is so great that the economic analytics have even labeled the modern political and economic system as corporate capitalism. Thus, the contemporary economic environment can be without much doubt considered the world of Big Business. Most explanations of the reasons for the rapid growth of business outline three main factors. First, it is the shift from water-powered to coal-powered factories, which nabled manufacturers to locate their plants nearer to markets and suppliers. The new technology also allowed producing bigger quantities of goods at a lower price, while the quality has also risen significantly. Second, the transportation improvements allowed firms to distribute their products to regional or national markets. A great role here was played by the development of railroad. Instead of only being able to ship goods to a local and regional market, railroads now made it possible for companies to ship and sell their goods outside traditional local markets. But even though the railroad now made it possible for the companies to sell their products to other regions, they had now to find a way of paying for shipping and still being able to reach Break-even point and compete with other regional companies. Third reason is the development of new financial institutions, such as the stock market, commercial banks, and investment houses, which increased the availability of investment capital. Although these factors create an impression that the rise of Big Business was a rather orderly process, this was actually not the way it happened. The rise of Big Business came largely as a response to the hostility of business environment, where the challenges of competition were compounded by frequent economic contractions or panics, and other features of economic instability. The most violent contractions happened in the periods of 1873-1878 and 1893-1897. During The rapid corporate growth in America started in the end of 1860s, after the end of Civil War. The first period of Big Business rise, also known as corporate revolution or great merger movement, coincided with important changes in the American society. These were the end of Civil War, abolishment of slavery and several other political reforms, resolution of social tension between the North and the South, and economic recovery of the South, known as Reconstruction. Unlike the Civil war and Revolution, Rise of Big Business took place without violent political transformation because the preceding historical events already established all the political prerequisites for a peaceful economic change. The expert of politics and economics, Martin Sklar, mentions in one of his works that Unlike the great sociopolitical crisis of the 1850s nd 1860s, which was resolved by a national reconstruction that required a civil war and revolution, the corporate reconstruction required neither civil war nor revolution, but rather political reorganization and reform. Most explanations of the reasons for the rapid growth of business outline three main factors. First, it is the shift from water-powered to coal-powered factories, which enabled manufacturers to locate their plants nearer to markets and suppliers. The new technology also allowed producing bigger quantities of goods at a lower price, while the quality has also risen significantly. Second, the transportation improvements allowed firms to distribute their products to regional or national markets. A great role here was played by the development of railroad. Instead of only being able to ship goods to a local and regional market, railroads now made it possible for companies to ship and sell their goods outside traditional local markets. But even though the railroad now made it possible for the companies to sell their products to other regions, they had now to find a way of paying for shipping and still being able to reach Break-even point and compete with other regional companies. Third reason is the development of new financial institutions, such as the stock market, commercial banks, and investment houses, which increased the availability of investment capital. Although these factors create an impression that the rise of Big Business was a rather orderly process, this was actually not the way it happened. The rise of Big Business came largely as a response to the hostility of business environment, where the challenges of competition were compounded by frequent economic contractions or panics, and other features of economic instability. The most violent contractions happened in the eriods of 1873-1878 and 1893-1897. During one of such panics in the mid-1870s, 47,000 businesses went bankrupt. Thus, the end of the nineteenth century was marked by the rapid merger movement, when many local businesses were Joined together to create large corporations. As a result, a small number of very large companies, which quickly eclipsed their business rivals, emerged in specific sectors. This trend became most apparent in the United States but it also appeared important most developed countries of Europe. Some of the newborn corporate giants were United States Steel, AT T, American Tobacco, Pennsylvania Railroad New York Life insurance company, and several others. Most of the mergers took place in the American economy after 1897, when many large corporations in manufacturing, steel and railroads were created. The businesses grew as a result not of production and distribution), but also of horizontal integration (when companies expand into related fields of business). Both types of integration contributed to the emergence of polls, holding companies, cartels, and trusts. As a response to recurring business crises, strong competition, and declining profits, some businessmen made an attempt to create financial stability by formation of ools or cartels. These were agreements among competitors to divide markets, fix production quotas, and agree on certain price levels. However, pools rarely survived an economic contraction and were too weak to solve the problem of competition because they were voluntary agreements. An alternative to the pools were the trusts. Under trusts, owners of rival firms assigned their stock to a single board of trustees in return for interest-bearing but non-voting certificates. The trustees then fixed prices and marketing policies for all the companies. The famous Rockefellers Standard Oil Company was the first trust, which was followed by trusts created in such industries as manufacturing, machinery, mining, alcohol distilling, and sugar refining. The negative side of the trusts was that they restrained trade and violated corporate charters of the competing firms. That is why trusts faced intense legal resistance and were banned by the Sherman Anti-Trust Act in 1890. Then, trusts were replaced by a new the holding companies, a company with the power to purchase other companies. Holding company was legal according to the law. Probably, the most famous holding company was General Motors, after it purchased number of smaller automobile manufacturing companies. The new large corporations had a lot of strengths when compared to the small local businesses, which dominated the American Economy until the 1860s. Jeremy Attack mentions that During the Civil War, the need for manufactured goods of all kinds provided manufacturers with a more autonomous existence. Factories that were built early in the 19th century were frequently small, local monopolies which did not attract much competition because of the general backwardness of transportation . These businesses were not directly competing with each other and were still mploying skill craft workers to manufacture products. The great mass of American proprietors were, at any rate, the owner-managers of very small firms. On the average, each proprietor hired seven workers . Because of their dependence on local skilled workforce and customers, these companies did not produce a large volume of goods and oriented themselves on the amount that was needed and demanded currently at the market. So, first of all, local businesses of the middle nineteenth century had a small customer base, which made them very sensitive to the competition and changes in customers preferences. Another weakness, small inventory base, was both the consequence and the reason of the limited production. The small businesses, being locally owned and managed, had also small availability of investment and financial resources. The business owners usually borrowed from a local bank to start the company and then typically operated on profits without taking credits. The profits were typically spent at the local communities. All in all, these businesses were isolated within their local markets. Operating in the conditions of prices. Often businesses had to set high prices in order to break even, as the perating and manufacturing costs were also very high because of little quantities of goods produced. While the local businesses had very tight profit margins and could not afford to operate at a loss for very long. High operating costs, limited access to investment funds, and small size markets, allowed few opportunities for strategic maneuvers, and almost no flexibility. That is why the local businesses could not compete with corporate giants and often went bankrupt or let themselves be bought out by the rivals. In contrast to the local businesses, large trans-regional corporations had a huge ustomer base, which allowed them to shift from one group of customers to another and vary their marketing strategy; this also secured the companies from the loss caused by change in attitudes and preferences of a particular fraction of customers. Those businesses, which have grown into large corporations experienced significant expansion of the markets. As mentioned, before the corporate revolution, most businesses operated in a single town from a single office or factory, while the sales were made predominately to customers in the immediate area. But the new orporate enterprises carried out their functions in widely scattered locations. For example, as early as 1900, General Electric had plants in 23 cities. A great role here was played by the development of railroad, which contributed much to the expansion of the markets. After the railroads linked all the parts of the country together, the companies were able to ship goods not only to local and regional market, but it was now possible to ship and sell the goods outside traditional local markets. According to historian Albro Martin , the impact of railroads was threefold. First, the railroad ndustry reduced the real cost of transportation to a fraction of what it had been. Second, it brought all sections of the country into the national economy, making regional specialization on a grand scale possible. Third, it gave birth to a host of other industries for which it became an indispensable input or from which it derived the huge quantities of materials and equipment called for by railroad investment. The invention and advance of communication systems, such as telegraph and telephone made it possible to coordinate the work of businesses in the descent markets, allowing better interregional management. In fact, companies providing communication have also grown into large corporations operating on the continent wide markets. For example, this happened with American Telephone Telegraph (ATT). In the expanded markets, the big cities, which have developed into giant metropolises, became the main arena for corporate activity. The industry, finance, and administration was centered in metropolises, much due to the fact that corporations attempted, first of all, to expand to the cities and establish there their economic strategic base, and then, to reach from there the regional markets. This idea is pointed out by David R. Meyer, explanation is proposed based on role of metropolises as controllers and coordinators of exchange. Manufacturing concentrated increasingly in metropolises because they dominated regional markets. Metropolises specialized in some national market industries, but their industrial growth based on these industries simply kept pace with national growth . Jeremy big cities. The historian proposes that this trend was closely connected to the advance of water transportation system and creation of canals: Canals had radically eshaped trade flows in America, intercepting freight in far-distant hinterlands and diverting it to the port cities which they served. As a result, these cities grew at the expense of those that lacked such connections. In the competition for trade, more than city prestige was at stake . Though the railroad and communication systems now made it possible for the companies to sell their products to other regions, they had now to face a challenge of paying for shipping, and after that, still being able to at least reach break even point. The companies found the solution of the problem in the large scale production, hich allowed large producers to reduce the cost per unit. This approach received the name of economies of scale. The companies tried to reduce the cost of production by saving where possible on inputs and by maximizing the quantity of output. Thus the ratio of fixed costs to the profits declined, which helped big corporations to survive. The big corporations, unlike small local businesses, were able to purchase the new efficient equipment and start the mass production. Another factor allowing the mass production for Big Business was the expansion of markets, discussed previously. Now corporations oriented on the cost effectiveness and production capacity rather than on current demand on a particular regional market. The small local businesses, being unable to sink costs due to the economies of scale, had almost no chance to fght in the price war with nationwide corporate giants, who were enabled to charge lower prices by the profits received from the volume of sales. Besides the savings in manufacturing, for the Big Business, it was also cheaper to transport and store the products because very often companies got discounts based on sheer size of the order. For the Big Business, it was also much easier to access the investment funds and raise capital; because of its size it could borrow money at cheaper interest rates. Furthermore, large companies had the supplemental source of investment: going public and selling the shares. Besides the economies of scale and cost effectiveness, corporations profited from their reputation and well known on the different markets brands. Lastly, corporations often used their economic power to receive government subsidies and special tax breaks. After the rise of corporations, the whole American economy was dramatically transformed. After years of instability following the Civil War marked by high unemployment and large numbers of business failures, business began to consolidate into progressively larger economic units. The economy received a push towards further development, and the level and the quality of life increased significantly. However, there was much criticism concerning the way corporations conduct business, and the way they may misuse power. Generally, the debate regarded three questions: whether wealth come from exploitation or from patience, frugality, and virtue; whether bigness was the result of conspiracy or of pressures of lind economic forces; whether men of wealth and power be free to use their riches as they wishes or whether they should be taxed to support the public good. While business titans made all Americans better off through their innovations in management, finance, and production. Ideally, corporate capitalism is considered merely a positive outcome of historic development of mankind. For instance, Colin Koopman argues that corporations are a rather progressive form of property ownership: in corporate capitalism owners control capital only through the means of socially-developed processes. Ownership thus does not directly translate to control Corporations embrace the tensions between our social and individual lives that individual property systems and socialist property systems both neglect . Koopman follows with the view that in future corporations can become the securing power of democracy. According to Koopman, this concept is the source of their (corporations) democratic viability. It is obvious that corporations and governments are the two dominant centers of power in our world today. Corporations, I suggest, can become exemplars for ethical practices of democracy and capitalism . Other critics argue onsider the lords of industry monopolists and robber barons, who monopolized blocked the road to success for those who tried to compete with them. Anyway the rise of Big Business has brought both good and bad effects on the American society. The thing one can be sure of is that they played a dramatic role in the historic development of the country by bringing economic acceleration, technological and ideological innovation, and new understanding of business. Basically, corporate capitalism can work for the good of the nation, given that the economic freedom, governmental control, and public involvement are balanced.

Great Depression Essays (621 words) - Financial Crises,

Great Depression The Great Depression took place from 1930 to 1939. During this time the prices of stock fell 40%. 9,000 banks went out of business and 9 million savings accounts were wiped out. 86,00 businesses failed, and wages were decreased by an average of 60%. The unemployment rate went from 9% all the way to 25%, about 15 million jobless people. The economic expansion of the 1920s, with its increased production of goods and high profits, culminated in immense consumer speculation that collapsed with disastrous results in 1929 causing Americas Great Depression. There were a number or contributing factors to the depression, with the largest and most important one being a general loss of confidence in the American economy. The reason it escalated was a general misunderstanding of recessions by American policymakers of the time. The U.S. economy was booming in the 1920s. Stocks prices soared, as they were bought on margin for as little as 10% down. Market speculation is cyclical-that is, if one st ock appears profitable, you buy it, which causes the price to rise and others to buy as well. However, the economy was not stable. National wealth was not distributed evenly. Instead, most money was in the hands of a few families who saved or invested rather than spent their money on American goods. Thus, supply was greater than demand, and some people profited, but others did not. As such, the bubble had to inevitably burst, since the stock market boom was very unsteady and people borrowed money on false optimism. Black Tuesday in 1929 was that bubble burster. In the summer of 1929, a few stock market investors began selling their stock. They predicted that the bull market might end soon, leaving them in debt. Seeing these few investors begin to sell, others soon followed to minimize their losses, creating a domino effect, which exacerbated the situation. Regardless of the governments attempt to place the modern equivalent of tens of billions of dollars into certain banks, the liqu idation continued, as folks wanted out quickly at whatever cost. Many people lost as much as ten times their initial investment, which shook consumer confidence. In an effort to cover their margins, people rushed the banks in masses, demanding their money. Soon, banks began to run out of cash and went bust. With the economy falling in shambles and companies defaulting on loans, nearly all private and corporate investment ceased. Companies couldnt afford to expand, and in fact, many had to consolidate in order to cover the margins on their loans. This meant postponing hiring and laying workers off, which caused unemployment to skyrocket. With people now willing to work for less money, wages lessened too. At the same time prices rose in an attempt by companies to make some amount of profit off the goods. Because the governments prevailing economic theory was based on laissez-faire economics, the government believed that recessions were self-correcting. Eventually unemployment and infl ation stopped declining, but not before the U.S. lost 1/3 of its output and 25% of the workforce was unemployed. In the end, it was World War II that brought us out of the Great Depression. With war at hand, the government began pumping massive amounts of money into the economy. Production and inflation increased. More jobs were available and wages rose. At the wars end there was a brief recession while the economy reacted to a loss of the money the government had been pumping in, but the big picture demonstrated American optimism for victory was high, and as such the faith of Americans in their country followed their increased patriotism. The market had finally corrected. Arts Essays

The Development of Education essays

The Development of Education essays The twentieth century meant change for every citizen of the United States. With two World Wars, a severe depression, the struggle for the rights of women and minorities, and amazing technological advancements, the country rose and fell sporadically, but always found itself back on top. Because government, economy, and public interest were the focus of the century, the issue of education was an endless matter. Due to this rise in public concern and involvement in education, numerous reforms and advancements have been made to enforce Civil Rights in schools, ensure parental involvement in education, and improve curriculum. At the turn of the century, education had become crucial to much of the population of the United States. Schools were opening across the country and becoming more advanced with every year. There was still one problem; these schools were only available for the white, upper and middle class children. African-Americans tried to open small schools of their own. Some survived, but faced numerous problems. The teachers salaries were so low that they often had to be supplemented by black churches. At the same time, they had shorter school years when they really needed longer to bring the black students to the same level as their long-educated white peers. They taught all classes with a lack of books, desks, and many other supplies much needed to run a school. Two African-American women were very dissatisfied with the condition of the schools. Fanny Jackson Coppin was the first African-American to graduate from Oberlin College. She believed that black children should receive the same quality of education as white children. In 1902, Coppin began a program to train black teachers. She developed classes on school hygiene, reading skills, and how the teachers should effectively present material to their classes. Her programs not only increased the number of qualified teachers in African-American school...

Nursing documentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nursing documentation - Essay Example (Ammenwerth et al., 2003; Audit Commission, 2002) 'A nurse from Coventry was recently removed from the national register after failing to keep accurate records for patients in her care. She was found guilty of seven charges of misconduct. The committee heard that she failed to ensure care plans were prepared for several patients covering issues such as diabetes, pain management and dietary needs. On one occasion, she failed to notify staff of a patient's increased risk of hemorrhage following a drug error. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) found the nurse had systematically neglected a basic and crucial duty to keep proper records for the management of patient care.' (Griffin, 2004) And this is only one of the cases found in literature, in relation to the negligence, with which the nurses treat the importance of making records. Castledine (2005) reports about the failures to carry on proper documentation in the Freda House. Freda House is described by him as the establishment for treating blind people. Due to the improper records, which one of the nurses - Bob - was making, many patients and older people in the Freda House were mistreated and had health complications. As a result, 'The managers of Freda House decided to refer Bob to the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) because of the poor explanations and excuses for his actions. He was charged by the NMC with: (1) Completing medication records when the drugs had not been administered; (2) Falsely completing nursing records relating to wound dressings which had not been changed; (3) Failing to change residents' dressings while indicating that he had done so in the patients' care plans; (4) Failing to report at handover to the nurse in charge that he had not administered drugs or changed patients' dressings; (5) Failing to clean the eyes of a resident.' (Castledine, 2005). Of course, this only proves how nurses have got accustomed to the thought that documentation is the skill second to nursing (Tingle, 2001), not understanding its importance for the patient's health. The similar cases are also described by Tingle (2001), British Journal of Nursing (October, 2000), Johnston (1998), Moody (2001). It was surprising to read the work of Bjorvell, Wredling and Thorell-Ekstrand (2003), in which they have come to conclusion that 'most participants, regardless of group, perceived nursing documentation to be beneficial to them in their daily practice and to increase patient safety'. Why then do we have so many reports of the health complications, which appear as a result of the misleading or false nursing records (Anderson, 2000; Charles et al, 2000; Tingle, 1998) Many articles describe the importance of carrying correct nursing records. (Wright, 2003; Scottish Executive, 1999; Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2002; Dion, 2001) For example, Owen (2005) writes in her article, that 'Documenting patient care is extremely important in the community setting as nurses usually visit patients alone, sometimes with long periods between each visit. The only way that the nurse can legally communicate the care that has been delivered is by writing effective records. Nursing records are usually held by the patient, enabling information to be shared easily between visiting practitioners.

International Trade Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International Trade - Term Paper Example Therefore increasing economic activity and reducing unemployment and deflation are the ultimate production. The Keynesian theory indicates the critical actions at some micro-level of public sector and at individual level that restrict the cumulative macroeconomic upshots. Ultimately, the expansion and potential of the existing economy becomes lower and lower. IS-LM model of John Hicks, and the Phillips curve are the two basic theories of Keynesian macroeconomics which policy makers could use to grasp the business cycle in the country, however, both models are rejected by Post-Keynesians. IS-LM is an abbreviation of Investment Saving / Liquidity preference Money supply. This model has the same dominance as the Keynes actual analysis in formatting the actual policies both public and government sectors. The model correlates cumulative employment and demand to three vital capacities, i.e., government budget, money circulation, and the business prospects. During the great recession period of early 1930s, when numerous Neo-classical economists like Lionel Robbins, Edwin Cannan, Gustav Cassel and Arthur C. Pigou were using the further wage cuts policy to trim down the unemployment, Keynesian Theory was a revolutionary idea. IS-LM model and Phillips curve were widely used. For the prediction purpose, the economist used the IS-LM model. For instance, increment in the money would result higher productivity and employment and consequently Phillips curve was applied to predict an increase in inflation. The most appealing factor in the recognition of Keynesian Theory was that it provided theoretical guidance to policy-makers during the Great Depression era of 1930s. A lot of people considered that Keynesian Revolution was the outcome of rationale approach of government macroeconomic policy. The logical approach of Neo-classical economists looked like counterintuitive because